Secondary Research Into Issue

Perceptions of being a woman and strategies for women's body image resilience

"There is an increasing body of research within the last ten years examining the influence of body image issues on women's self-esteem, self-worth, and mental health. However, this research appears to focus on establishing a solid foundation for understanding the ways in which negative body image can harm women and lacks focus on ways women can develop resilience."

McLean, L. L. (2016). Perceptions of Being a Woman and Strategies for Women's Body Image Resilience. The Qualitative Report, 21(6), 1118.


Body Image Perception and Body Dissatisfaction Gender Differences

"Body satisfaction is the degree to which an individual is comfortable with her or his body"

"As a result, men and women are choosing a number of negative and sometimes frequent appearance management behaviours including excessive exercise and dieting, self-induced vomiting, and plastic surgery." 

"Dissatisfied with their less than ideal bodies, women often adopted harmful practices to modify their bodies and reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction often choosing more drastic appearance management behaviours leading to weight loss in order to achieve an ideal weight and shape."

"Fortunately, not all males and females who experience body dissatisfaction or poor body image practice negative appearance management behaviours."

"The study’s conceptual basis was founded on the idea that perception of and level of satisfaction with one’s body leads to utilising clothing as an appearance management behaviour to achieve the western aesthetic ideal. They proposed clothing could theoretically be used to emphasise positive body features and to conceal negative body features."

"... found that undergraduate female participants with low body image perception and low body satisfaction wore clothing that provided greater coverage of their bodies, and females with high body image perception and high body satisfaction wore clothing that was more revealing. When used properly, the aesthetic attributes of apparel serve as a coping strategy by reducing the discrepancy between perceived appearance and cultural ideals of beauty, which results in improved body image."

"Females are often more consumed with and critical of the shapes of their bodies and their actual weight. For adult females, constant comparison of their bodies to those of professional models portrayed in media leads many women to experience body dissatisfaction. Research supports that after exposure to thin ideal media images females’ body dissatisfaction increases. When compared to thin female models, women may feel shame and anxiety for not meeting the perceived standard. Women are more prone than men to have a negative body image because they are socialised to be continuously conscious of the thin female body and of being evaluated based on appearance because in western culture thinness equals beauty."

"This study is important because females are critical when analysing their bodies and often have a distorted body image and low body satisfaction."

Dixon, D. L., Esslinger, K., Yen, W. J., & Grimes, A. (2015). Body Image Perception and Body Dissatisfaction Gender Differences. Kentucky Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 29

The Body Image Of Physically Active And Inactive Women

"In modern Western societies a key element of body image is its shape and mass. What makes body shape and mass different from other aspects of physical appearance is that they are perceived as con- trolled mainly by the individual, in contrast to such physical features as height and eye colour."

"Research results indicate that physical appearance to a large extent determines the self- worth and status of women, and for this reason the evaluation of their physical appearance is an important component of their self-esteem."

"The current ideal female body type lays particular emphasis on thinness. This ideal is commonly accepted despite the fact that most women cannot achieve it through rational behaviour. The increasing discrepancy between the model promoted by the media and one's own appearance is causing a growing number of persons to be dissatisfied with their bodies."

"The relationship between body image and physical activity can be considered from at least two perspectives. First of all, physical activity can influence a person's body image, particularly in the emotional domain. Most of the studies conducted so far have shown that physically active persons are more satisfied with their bodies and that their satisfaction tends to in- crease as a result of physical exercise."

"Physical exercise was associated with improved and more positive body image in persons who performed physical exercise compared to physically inactive ones."

"Body image is currently understood as a complex and multi- dimensional construct which includes cognitive (among others perceptual) as well as affective and behavioural aspects of experiencing one's body."

"On the other hand, statistically significant differences were found for the emotional aspect. The physically active women revealed greater acceptance of the general features of their physical appearance (body height and mass), figure, general physical attractiveness, and facial appearance and were more satisfied with them."

"This hypothesis seems to be evidenced by a significantly higher level of anxiety related to physical appearance recorded for the women who were physically inactive. Persons who experience acute anxiety of this type tend to avoid situations in which their body is exposed, which are common during fitness exercise that is organised in groups and usually takes place in rooms where mirrors are installed. This factor can additionally encourage greater focus on one's appearance, which can in- crease anxiety and the chance of withdrawing from social activity."

"On the other hand, self-esteem can be influenced by performing physical exercise. Developing various skills, perfecting the achievement of certain tasks, and experiencing success can enhance an individual's self-esteem."

"The women who had higher self-esteem and lower anxiety about their physical appearance and who were more satisfied with their bodies were more likely to participate in group exercise."

Guszkowska, M. (2015). The Body Image Of Physically Active And Inactive Women. Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism, 22(2), 74-78.


Body Image Dissatisfaction: Responses between Male and Female Exercisers and Non-Exercisers

"Body image dissatisfaction (BID) is defined as the difference between actual and desired image."

"Females are more likely to diet, and have the potential to practice more extreme, unhealthy dietary practices."

"Individuals who are motivated to exercise for appearance versus health related benefits have a greater body dissatisfaction and greater prevalence of eating disorders, decreased self-esteem, increased social physique anxiety and decreased physiological well-being."

"Those who exercise for health related benefits have greater body satisfaction, higher self- esteem and greater overall psychological well-being. Collectively, it seems those who exercise for health-related benefits do so for intrinsic reward, whereas those who exercise for appearance do so for extrinsic rewards."

Melching, K., Green, M., O'Neal, E. K., & Renfroe, L. (2016). Body Image Dissatisfaction: Responses Between Male and Female Exercisers and Non-Exercisers. International Journal of Exercise Science, 9(3), 1.

Behavioral and psychological implications of body dissatisfaction: Do men and women differ?

"The degree to which people are satisfied with their bodies may have profound implications for their self-perceptions and behaviours."

"At the core of the phenomenology of body image dissatisfaction are two images: the perceived self and the ideal self."

Silberstein, L. R., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Timko, C., & Rodin, J. (1988). Behavioral and psychological implications of body dissatisfaction: Do men and women differ?. Sex roles, 19(3-4), 219-232.

Body Image Dissatisfaction: Gender Differences in Eating Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Reasons for Exercise

"Women are more likely than men to describe themselves as tit. to weigh themselves often, and to diet frequently. They are also generally more dissatisfied with their physical appearance than are men."

"Women are more likely to judge themselves overweight when by objective standards they are not."

"There is little doubt that Western societies encourage and reward the pursuit of the perfect body because it is an ideal that symbolises the attainment of numerous personal virtues and achievements. Unfortunately, the body image standards to which women currently aspire are far beyond what can be achieved with healthy or sensible levels of dieting or exercise."

Furnham, A., Badmin, N., & Sneade, I. (2002). Body image dissatisfaction: Gender differences in eating attitudes, self-esteem, and reasons for exercise. The Journal of psychology, 136(6), 581-596.

Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women

"Research has shown that compared to men, female undergraduates have more negative body image evaluations, stronger investments in their looks, and more frequent body image dysphoria."

"Media pressure to be thin influences individuals to have negative feelings about their appearance. A recent meta-analysis found that after viewing thin media images, female participants’ body images were significantly more negative than after viewing average or plus size models."

Green, S. P., & Pritchard, M. E. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 31(3), 215-222.

Girl Culture: An Encyclopaedia

"Girls gaze upon themselves, wondering if they are thin enough, pretty enough, smart enough, sexy enough, well dressed enough or ritzy-looking enough for those who would gaze upon them. Girls patrol the borders of their own bodies in anticipation of the judgement of others. Girls thus exist in a perpetual panopticon where they are observed, if not by others, then by themselves as a form of self-regulation and control that can feel like a self-imposed prison."

"People cannot help but construct notions of themselves that are drawn, at least in part, from the media images that surround them."

"Teen publications often included narrow portrayals of an 'ideal' physical appearance."

Mitchell, C., & Reid-Walsh, J. (2008). Girl Culture: An Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 2008.


Love Your Body: A positive affirmation guide for loving and appreciating your body

“Somewhere along the line you listened to others who told you that you were ‘not good enough’. You began to criticise your body thinking that perhaps that’s where you flaws were.”

“Let’s drop all that nonsense and get back to loving our bodies and accepting them totally as they are… if we give our bodies love, they will change for the better.”

Hay, L. L. (1989). Love your body: a positive affirmation guide for loving and appreciating your body. Santa Monica, Calif. : Hay House, c1989.


Positive Bodies: Loving the skin you're in

“…sometimes dissatisfaction with the body becomes generalised to dissatisfaction with oneself as a whole.”

“International research on Western cultures suggests 60% of women are dissatisfied with some part of their bodies. In fact, for women, body dissatisfaction is seen as the norm, whether this be dissatisfaction with particular parts or with the body as a whole.”

“When I first went to see someone about my body image, my goal was to lose weight and be happy. I quickly learnt that my real goal was to feel contented in my life and with myself and that included my body image. And that in order to achieve this I actually had to stop focusing on losing weight. Losing weight never brought me happiness whereas learning to love and respect my body did.”

“The way that your body looks on the outside does not have to influence the way that you feel about it on the inside.”

“I learnt that my adult perception was based on how I thought other perceived me. I have my own perception now, based on the real me, my talents, qualities and who I am as a person.”

“We’re more likely to behave in ways that are good for our health and wellbeing when we feel positive about our bodies. We’re also more likely to engage with the world around us when we feel positive and confident in our skin. Being healthy and taking care of ourselves and our wellbeing is more likely to occur when we value our bodies. We feel more comfortable socially and in public and are more likely to jump in there and do things when we feel good about our bodies.”

“There is a strong link between the way we behave and treat our body and how we feel about it.”

“There’s no one thing that makes everyone happy, but here are some general areas that make people feel their most content: be physically active, do things you enjoy, be in the moment, focus on what you do well, get social, eat regular, nutritious foods.”

Lewis, V. (2012). Positive bodies: loving the skin you're in. Bowen Hills, Qld. : Australian Academic Press Group, 2012.